Components of a research paper, A comprehensive guide

Publishing a research paper is more than just presenting your findings—it’s about organizing your work clearly, ethically, and in a format recognizable by your peers. This guide is designed to help new researchers understand each component of a scientific paper, what it contains, and how to approach it.

Important: Every journal has its own submission requirements and may include or exclude certain components or have different ordering for components. Always consult the journal’s author guidelines before writing or submitting your manuscript.

Research paper structure, in the usual order:

1. Title
2. Authors list and their Order
3. Affiliations
4. Corresponding Author Contact Info
5. Highlights
6. Lay Summary / Plain Language Summary
7. Abstract
8. Keywords
9. Abbreviation List
10. Introduction / Background
11. Methods
12. Results
13. Tables
14. Figures
15. Discussion
16. Limitations
17. Future studies
18. Conclusion
19. Acknowledgments
20. Funding Statement
21. Author Contributions
22. Ethics Statements
23. Conflicts of Interests
24. Data Availability
25. Disclosure
26. References
27. Appendix
28. Supplementary Materials / Online Supplementary Information
    

Main Manuscript Structure (As Seen by Readers)

• Title

The title is the first impression your research paper makes. It should offer a clear, concise summary of the main focus or findings of your study. A well-crafted title helps readers quickly understand what your research is about and decide whether it’s relevant to their interests.
An effective title makes your paper discoverable in databases and search engines, increasing the likelihood that other researchers will find and cite your work. It also signals the professionalism and clarity of your research to reviewers and editors.

Tips for Writing a Strong Title:

• Be Specific: Clearly state the subject and scope of the study. Avoid vague or overly broad titles.
• Use Keywords: Include terms that are likely to be used in academic searches. Think about what someone might type into Google Scholar or PubMed to find your paper.
• Avoid Jargon: Use simple, widely understood language whenever possible, especially if your work spans disciplines.
• Reflect the Research Type: If your study is a meta-analysis, a case study, or a randomized controlled trial, consider including that in the title.
• Stay Concise: Aim for around 10–15 words. Long titles can be confusing and are harder to remember.
• Avoid Sensationalism: While creativity is good, make sure your title remains grounded in the actual content of your study.

Examples of Effective Titles:

• “The Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Cognitive Performance in Medical Interns”
  → Clear, specific, and focused on a defined population and outcome.
• “A Randomized Controlled Trial of Mindfulness Training to Reduce Anxiety in College Students”
  → Indicates study design and target population.
• “Long-Term Impact of Air Pollution on Pediatric Asthma: A 10-Year Cohort Study”
  → Includes scope, subject, and study type.

 

 

• List of authors and order of authors

The list of authors on a research paper serves to recognize and credit individuals who made substantial contributions to the project. Authorship is not just a formality—it has professional, academic, and sometimes legal implications. It reflects each contributor’s role in the research and helps establish accountability.
Authorship affects career advancement, grant eligibility, and academic reputation. For students and early-career researchers, being properly credited on a publication is an important milestone. Misunderstandings about authorship can lead to serious ethical disputes, so it’s crucial to handle this thoughtfully and transparently.

Tips for Determining Authorship:

• Start the Conversation Early: Discuss who will be listed as authors and in what order as early as possible in the research process. Revisit this discussion if roles change.
• Understand the Typical Order:
  • First Author: Usually the person who contributed the most—often responsible for most of the data collection, analysis, and writing.
  • Middle Authors: Contributed to various aspects of the research, such as data analysis, methodology, or interpretation.
  • Last Author: Often the senior researcher, lab head, or principal investigator who supervised the project.
• Corresponding Author: This is the point of contact for journal editors and readers. It may or may not be the first or last author but is often someone deeply involved and responsible for the manuscript.

Example Scenario:

For a study on the impact of nutrition on adolescent mental health:

• The first author may be a graduate student who designed the study, collected and analyzed data, and wrote the manuscript.
• The second and third authors might be lab technicians or statisticians who assisted with methodology and data processing.
• The last author could be a faculty advisor who secured funding and oversaw the project.

 

• Affiliations

Affiliations identify the institutions or organizations each author was associated with during the research. This helps provide context about where the research was conducted and can indicate the resources or environment that supported the work.
Institutional affiliations help readers and reviewers understand the background of the research team and can add credibility to the study. Affiliations also play a role in research networking, institutional reputation, and funding accountability.

Tips for Listing Affiliations:

• Use Full Names: Always spell out the full name of each institution, avoid abbreviations.
• Include Location Details: Add the city and country or state.
• Match Authors to Affiliations:
  • If all authors share the same affiliation, list it once under the author names.
  • If authors are affiliated with different institutions, use superscript numbers (or symbols) to match each author to their respective institution.
• Multiple Affiliations: If an author is affiliated with more than one institution, both can be listed, often separated by a semicolon or listed separately with multiple superscripts.

Formatting Example (with multiple authors and affiliations):

Authors:
Jane Doe¹, John Smith², and Emily Chen¹,³

Affiliations:
¹ Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
² Department of Neuroscience, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
³ Brain and Behavior Research Center, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA

• Corresponding Author’s Contact Information

The corresponding author is the designated point of contact between the research team and the outside world. This includes communication with the journal’s editorial staff during submission and peer review, as well as handling any questions from readers or researchers after the paper is published.
Having a clearly identified corresponding author ensures that there is a reliable channel for follow-up questions, requests for data, or potential collaborations. This role is especially important for maintaining transparency, reproducibility, and academic dialogue.

What is a corresponding Author? Who Should Be the Corresponding Author?

The corresponding author is often—but not always—the first or last author. It’s typically someone deeply involved in the project who understands the details well and is willing to take on the responsibility of managing communication throughout the publication process and beyond.

Tips for Listing a Corresponding Author:

• Include Full Contact Information:
  • Full name
  • Email address (institutional email preferred for credibility)
  • Mailing address (optional but common in traditional academic formats)
  • ORCID iD (if available; increasingly required by journals for author identification)

Example Format:

Corresponding author:
Dr. Emily Chen
Department of Neuroscience, Stanford University
Email: echen@stanford.edu
ORCID: 0000-0002-1234-5678

• Highlights / Research Highlights

Research highlights are a brief set of bullet points that summarize the key findings or contributions of your paper. They help readers quickly grasp the most important takeaways without reading the full article. These highlights are typically placed near the beginning of the paper or in the submission system when uploading your manuscript.
Highlights serve as a quick reference for editors, reviewers, and readers scanning through large volumes of research. They also improve the visibility of your work in search engines and indexing platforms. In some journals, they may even appear in search previews or article summaries.

Typical Requirements:

• 3 to 5 bullet points
• Each point should be concise, usually under 85 characters
• Focus on main findings, methods, or implications
• Avoid technical jargon and detailed statistics

Tips for Writing Effective Highlights:

• Think like your reader: What would someone unfamiliar with your work want to know first?
• Keep it plain and punchy: Use clear, direct language that conveys the core message.
• Focus on novelty and impact: What’s new about your study? Why does it matter?
• Avoid repeating the title or abstract verbatim: Instead, think of these as complementary sound bites.

Examples of Strong Research Highlights:

• Sleep deprivation reduces decision-making accuracy in medical interns
• Cognitive performance declines after 24 hours without rest
• Reaction time is significantly impaired during overnight shifts
• Recovery sleep restores baseline attention in 48 hours
• Results support hospital policy changes for intern scheduling

 

• Lay Summary / Plain Language Summary

The lay summary—also known as a plain language summary—explains the research in simple, accessible terms for non-specialists. It’s designed for a general audience, including patients, policymakers, journalists, and anyone interested in the topic but without a technical background.
Science communication is increasingly important in making research transparent, inclusive, and impactful beyond the academic community. A well-written lay summary can bridge the gap between complex scientific findings and real-world understanding, helping others see the value and relevance of your work.

Tips for Writing an Effective Lay Summary:

• Avoid technical jargon: Replace terms like “cognitive decline,” “neuroinflammation,” or “statistically significant” with everyday language like “thinking problems,” “brain swelling,” or “a clear difference.”
• Explain the ‘why’: Make it clear why the research matters. What real-world problem does it address?
• Describe what was done: Briefly summarize the methods, but only as much as needed for context.
• Highlight key findings: What did you discover, and how might it help people or improve understanding of a topic?
• Keep it short: Aim for 150–250 words—enough to be informative but still digestible.
• Use an engaging tone: Write as if you’re explaining the research to a curious friend or family member.

Structure to Follow:

1. Background: What is the problem or question being addressed?
2. Purpose: What was the goal of the study?
3. Methods (briefly): What did the researchers do?
4. Key findings: What was discovered?
5. Impact: Why do these findings matter?

Example of a Plain Language Summary:

Medical interns often work long hours with little sleep. This study looked at how sleep deprivation affects their ability to think clearly and make decisions. Researchers tested the performance of interns after working overnight shifts and found that they made more mistakes and responded more slowly. After two nights of recovery sleep, their thinking improved. These results suggest that limiting long shifts could help protect both patients and healthcare workers.

• Abstract/ Summary

The abstract is a concise summary of the entire research paper. It appears at the very beginning of the manuscript but is typically written last, once the full paper is complete. Its goal is to give technical readers a quick overview of the study, including what was done, how it was done, what was found, and why it matters.
The abstract is often the only part of a paper that is freely available or read initially—by journal editors, peer reviewers, or readers searching databases. A strong abstract can increase the visibility of your research and encourage others to read the full paper.

Types of Abstracts:

1. Structured Abstract

This format organizes the summary under clear subheadings. It is commonly used in clinical, biomedical, and systematic review papers.
Typical subheadings include:

• Background – What is the problem or question being addressed?
• Methods – What did you do and how?
• Results – What did you find?
• Conclusion – What do your findings mean?

Example (Structured):
Background: Sleep deprivation is common among medical interns and may affect decision-making.
Methods: We assessed 30 interns using cognitive tests before and after a 24-hour shift.
Results: Performance scores declined significantly after sleep loss but recovered with two nights of rest.
Conclusion: Sleep deprivation negatively impacts cognition in interns, highlighting the need for revised shift policies.

2. Unstructured Abstract

Presented as a single paragraph without subheadings, this style is common in many social science, humanities, and theoretical papers.

Example (Unstructured):
Medical interns often face long shifts with little sleep, raising concerns about cognitive performance. This study evaluated the effects of 24-hour sleep deprivation on decision-making and reaction time. Thirty interns were tested before and after a shift, with results showing significant declines in performance. Two nights of recovery sleep were sufficient to restore baseline function. These findings support calls to reduce extended working hours for medical trainees.

Tips for Writing a Clear and Effective Abstract:

• Write it last: After the full paper is completed, you’ll have a better grasp of what needs to be included.
• Keep it concise: Most abstracts are limited to 150–300 words, depending on the journal.
• Don’t include references or citations: Abstracts are meant to stand alone.
• Stay factual: Focus on the actual findings—don’t speculate or overstate the impact.

Common Mistake to Avoid:
Don’t copy lines from your introduction or conclusion. The abstract should be a unique, condensed summary that captures the core of your entire study.

• Paper Keywords

Keywords are a small set of terms—usually 4 to 6—that describe the core topics, methods, or focus areas of your research. They help with indexing and searchability in databases like PubMed, Scopus, or Google Scholar, making it easier for others to discover your work.
Search engines and academic databases use keywords to categorize and retrieve relevant papers. Well-chosen keywords increase your paper’s visibility, improve search ranking, and ensure it reaches the right audience. For new researchers, this can mean more readers, more citations, and more impact.

Tips for Choosing Effective Keywords:

• Think like a reader or researcher: What words or phrases would someone use to search for a study like yours?
• Be specific, not too broad: Instead of just “medicine,” use “sleep deprivation,” “intern performance,” or “resident fatigue.”
• Include methods if relevant: If your paper uses a distinctive technique or framework, include it (e.g., “randomized controlled trial,” “EEG monitoring,” “qualitative interviews”).
• Avoid repeating words already in the title: Many databases already index title terms—use keywords to complement the title.
• Search them in databases like PubMed or Scopus to see if similar studies use the same terms. This ensures consistency with existing literature and improves discoverability.

Example:

For a study titled “The Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Cognitive Performance in Medical Interns”, effective keywords might include:

• Sleep deprivation
• Cognitive performance
• Medical interns
• Shift work
• Reaction time
• Fatigue and decision-making

 

• Abbreviation List

The abbreviation list defines any uncommon or specialized acronyms used throughout the research paper. This helps readers quickly understand terms that might otherwise cause confusion, especially if the abbreviations are not widely known outside your specific field.
While abbreviations can make your writing more concise, they can also create barriers for readers unfamiliar with the terminology. Providing a list ensures clarity and improves the paper’s accessibility, especially for interdisciplinary audiences or students who may be new to the topic.

Tips for Using an Abbreviation List:

• Include only necessary abbreviations: Avoid listing common abbreviations like DNA, MRI, or USA, which most readers will already understand.
• Format clearly: Present abbreviations in alphabetical order with their full forms spelled out.
• First use in text: When you use an abbreviation for the first time in the text, write the full term followed by the abbreviation in parentheses. After that, just use the abbreviation.
• Keep it concise: Don’t overload your paper with excessive abbreviations—too many can make reading difficult.

Example:

• EEG: Electroencephalogram
• PTSD: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

• Research Introduction / Research Background

The introduction sets the stage for your research by providing the necessary context and explaining why the study was conducted. It helps readers understand the background, the current state of knowledge, and what gaps or unanswered questions your research aims to address.
A clear, well-structured introduction builds interest and justifies the need for your study. It guides readers from what is already known toward the specific problem or question your work focuses on.

Structure of a Strong Introduction:

1. Background and Current Knowledge:
   Begin by summarizing relevant previous research and key concepts. This shows you understand the field and establishes the foundation for your study.
   • Example: “Sleep deprivation is a widespread issue among medical interns, with documented effects on cognitive function…”
2. Identify Knowledge Gaps:
   Highlight what is not yet known or understood—what gaps or controversies exist in the current literature that your study will address.
   • Example: “However, few studies have examined how sleep loss affects decision-making during overnight hospital shifts…”
3. State Objectives or Hypothesis:
   Clearly explain the purpose of your research or the hypotheses you plan to test. This tells readers exactly what to expect.
   • Example: “This study aims to evaluate the impact of 24-hour sleep deprivation on cognitive performance in medical interns, hypothesizing that sleep loss impairs decision-making accuracy.”

Tips for Writing an Effective Introduction:

• Start Broad, Then Narrow Down:
  Begin with the big picture, then focus on the specific problem your study tackles.
• Be Concise but Informative:
  Provide enough detail to explain why the study matters without overwhelming readers.
• Use Clear, Simple Language:
  Avoid excessive jargon, especially if your audience includes beginners or interdisciplinary readers.
• End with a Clear Research Question or Goal:
  The last sentence(s) of your introduction should explicitly state the research question, objective, or hypothesis to guide the reader.

Example Closing Sentence for an Introduction:

“This study investigates whether 24-hour sleep deprivation negatively affects cognitive function in medical interns, with the goal of informing hospital policies on shift scheduling.”

• Methods and materials

The Methods and Materials section explains how the research was carried out. It provides a detailed description of the study design, participants or materials used, procedures followed, and the analytical or statistical methods applied. This section ensures transparency and allows other researchers to replicate your study or evaluate its validity.

Key Components to Include:

• Study Design:
  Describe the overall approach or type of study. Is it experimental, observational, qualitative, quantitative, randomized controlled trial, cross-sectional, etc.?
  • Example: “This was a prospective observational study evaluating cognitive performance before and after overnight shifts.”
• Participants or Materials:
  Provide details about who or what was involved. For human studies, include demographics, inclusion/exclusion criteria, and recruitment methods. For lab-based studies, specify equipment, chemicals, or biological materials used.
  • Example: “Thirty medical interns aged 24-30 years from a teaching hospital participated in the study.”
• Procedures:
  Explain step-by-step what was done during the study. Include how data was collected, timing, interventions, and any controls used. This should be detailed enough for someone else to follow your process.
  • Example: “Participants completed cognitive tests immediately before and after a 24-hour shift. Sleep duration was recorded using wrist actigraphy.”
• Analytical / Statistical Methods:
  Describe how the data was analyzed. Mention software used, statistical tests performed, significance levels, and any data cleaning or processing steps.
  • Example: “Data were analyzed using SPSS v26. Paired t-tests compared pre- and post-shift scores, with significance set at p < 0.05.”

Tips for Writing a Thorough Methods Section:

• Be Clear and Detailed:
  Write so that other researchers could replicate your study exactly based on your description.
• Use Past Tense:
  Since the study has already been conducted, describe the methods in the past tense.
• Include Justification:
  Briefly explain why certain methods or procedures were chosen if relevant.
• Organize Logically:
  Present the methods in the order they were performed.

Example Snippet for a Methods Section:

This prospective observational study involved 30 medical interns aged 24–30 years from XYZ Hospital. Participants underwent cognitive testing using the Stroop test before and after a 24-hour overnight shift. Sleep duration was monitored via wrist-worn actigraphy devices. Data were analyzed with paired t-tests using SPSS version 26, considering p-values less than 0.05 as statistically significant.

 

 

• Results of a research paper

The Results section brings What the study has found, objectively presents the data and findings from your study without interpretation or discussion. It shows what you discovered based on the methods you used, providing evidence to answer your research question.

Tips for Writing an Effective Results Section:

• Be Clear and Concise:
  Report your findings in a straightforward manner. Avoid repeating all raw data in the text—focus on the most important results.
• Use Tables and Figures:
  Visual aids like tables, graphs, and charts help summarize complex data and make your results easier to understand. Refer to them in the text (e.g., “As shown in Table 2…”).
• Report Actual Data and Statistical Values:
  Include specific numbers, means, standard deviations, confidence intervals, and p-values where appropriate. For example, “The mean reaction time increased from 350 ms to 420 ms (p = 0.02).”
• Organize Logically:
  Present results in the same order as your methods or research questions to maintain clarity.
• Avoid Interpretation:
  Do not explain what the results mean here—that belongs in the Discussion section. Stick to what you found, not why it happened.
• When including multiple results, consider grouping related findings under subheadings for easier reading.

Example of Results Writing:

Medical interns showed a significant decline in cognitive performance after 24 hours of sleep deprivation. The mean accuracy on the decision-making test decreased from 85% (±5%) to 70% (±7%) (p < 0.01). Reaction times increased by 20%, from 350 ms to 420 ms (p = 0.02). These results are summarized in Table 1 and Figure 2.

 

• Tables in research paper

Tables are used to display precise numerical data clearly and efficiently. They help organize complex information so readers can easily understand patterns, comparisons, and results without wading through dense text.

Tips for Creating Effective Tables:

• Title Every Table:
  Each table should have a clear, descriptive title that explains what the data represents. The title usually appears above the table.
• Number Tables Sequentially:
  Number your tables in the order they are referenced in the text (Table 1, Table 2, etc.). This helps readers locate them easily.
• Include Footnotes if Needed:
  Use footnotes to explain abbreviations, symbols, or any special notes that clarify the data in the table. Footnotes go below the table.
• Keep Tables Simple and Focused:
  Avoid overcrowding tables with too much information. If needed, break complex data into multiple tables.
• Refer to Tables in Your Text:
  When discussing your results, refer readers to the relevant tables (e.g., “As shown in Table 3…”).
• Use consistent formatting—such as font size, alignment, and decimal places—to make tables look professional and easy to read.

Example Table Title:

Table 1. Cognitive Performance Scores of Medical Interns Before and After Sleep Deprivation

 

• Figures in research paper

Figures are visual representations—such as graphs, charts, diagrams, or images—that help communicate data, trends, or complex processes more clearly and quickly than text alone. They make your research more engaging and easier to understand.

Tips for Creating Effective Figures:

• Label Axes and Units Clearly:
  Always include clear labels on the x-axis and y-axis (or other relevant parts) with units of measurement where applicable. This ensures readers understand exactly what is being shown.
• Use High-Resolution Images:
  Figures should be sharp and clear, with a minimum resolution of 300 dpi (dots per inch) for print quality. Avoid blurry or pixelated images.
• Include a Figure Legend (Caption):
  Every figure needs a concise but informative legend below it. The legend should explain what the figure shows, define any symbols or colors used, and provide enough context so the figure can be understood independently of the main text.
• Keep It Simple:
  Avoid clutter by focusing on the key message. Use colors and markers consistently, and don’t overload figures with too much information.
• Reference Figures in the Text:
  Always refer to each figure in the main text, for example, “Figure 1 illustrates the decline in reaction times after sleep deprivation.
• Use software tools like Excel, GraphPad Prism, or R to create professional-quality figures.”

Example Figure Legend:

Figure 1. Reaction times of medical interns before and after a 24-hour sleep deprivation shift. Data points represent mean ± standard error.

 

 

• Paper Discussion

The Discussion section interprets your findings, explains their significance, and places them within the context of existing research. It’s where you explain what your results mean, why they matter, and how they contribute to the field.

Structure of a Strong Discussion:

• Recap Key Findings:
  Start by briefly summarizing the most important results without repeating all the details from the Results section.
  • Example: “Our study found that sleep deprivation significantly impaired cognitive performance in medical interns…”
• Compare with Existing Literature:
  Discuss how your findings agree with, differ from, or add to previous studies. This shows you understand the broader research landscape.
  • Example: “These results are consistent with prior research indicating that sleep loss reduces attention and decision-making accuracy…”
• Address Implications:
  Explain the practical or theoretical importance of your findings. How might they affect policy, practice, or future studies?
  • Example: “These findings suggest hospitals should reconsider intern shift lengths to improve patient safety and physician well-being.”
• The “Study Limitations” and “Future research” (described next in this post) could be integrated at the end of the discussion. 

Tips for Writing a Thoughtful Discussion:

• Be Balanced and Objective:
  Avoid overstating the importance of your results. Highlight strengths but also be transparent about limitations.
• Use Clear, Accessible Language:
  Make your interpretations understandable, especially if your audience includes beginners or interdisciplinary readers.
• Connect Back to Your Research Question:
  Make sure your discussion addresses the question or hypothesis stated in your introduction.
• End with a Strong Conclusion:
  Summarize the overall message of your study and its contribution to the field.

Example Closing Sentence for Discussion:

“In summary, this study demonstrates that 24-hour sleep deprivation impairs cognitive function in medical interns, underscoring the need for interventions to reduce fatigue in clinical settings.”

• Study Limitations

This section acknowledges the weaknesses or constraints in your research. Being transparent about limitations shows scientific integrity and helps readers interpret your findings with the appropriate context. It also demonstrates that you understand the scope and boundaries of your work.

Structure of a Clear Limitations Section:

• Identify Key Limitations:
  Begin by clearly stating the main limitations of your study. These might relate to sample size, study design, measurement tools, duration, or generalizability.
  Example: “A major limitation of this study is the small sample size, which may limit the generalizability of our findings to the broader population.”
• Explain the Impact:
  Discuss how each limitation might have influenced your results or interpretations. Be honest, but avoid undermining your entire study.
  Example: “Because participants self-reported their sleep hours, the data may be subject to recall bias, which could affect the accuracy of the sleep-performance relationship.”
• Justify When Appropriate:
  If a limitation was unavoidable due to practical or ethical reasons, briefly explain why. This shows thoughtfulness in study design.
  Example: “Due to ethical concerns, we could not randomly assign interns to sleep-deprived conditions, which limited our ability to infer causality.”
• Suggest Ways to Improve:
  Often, limitations naturally lead into suggestions for future studies (described next).

Tips for Writing an Honest Limitations Section:

• Be Transparent but Constructive:
  Don’t try to hide weaknesses, but also don’t let them overshadow your contributions. Show that you’re aware and thoughtful.
• Avoid Over-Apologizing:
  All studies have limitations. Acknowledging them doesn’t diminish the value of your work—it enhances your credibility.
• Use Professional, Neutral Language:
  Avoid emotionally loaded terms like “major flaw” or “critical issue.” Instead, use phrases like “a potential limitation” or “an area for improvement.”

Example:

“Limitations include the small sample size and reliance on self-reported sleep duration.”

 

• Future Research/ Future Studies

This section outlines how upcoming research can build upon your findings or address unanswered questions and limitations. It shows that your study is part of a larger, ongoing scientific conversation and encourages others to explore new directions based on your work.

Structure of a Forward-Looking Future Studies Section:

• Build on Your Results:
  Suggest how future research can expand on your findings, whether by testing new variables, using different populations, or applying alternative methods.
  Example: “Future studies could examine the long-term effects of chronic sleep deprivation on clinical decision-making across different medical specialties.”
• Address Limitations:
  Use this section to propose ways to overcome the limitations you acknowledged earlier.
  Example: “To increase generalizability, future research should replicate these findings in a multi-center study with a larger and more diverse sample.”
• Explore New Questions:
  If your findings raise new questions, highlight them. This helps guide the next steps in the research process.
  Example: “An interesting question for future research is whether strategic napping during shifts can mitigate the effects of sleep deprivation on performance.”
• Recommend Methodological Improvements:
  If your study faced design or measurement challenges, suggest better approaches for future work.
  Example: “Using wearable sleep trackers could improve the accuracy of sleep measurement in future investigations.”

Tips for Writing a Strong Future Studies Section:

• Be Specific but Realistic:
  Propose actionable and feasible next steps that future researchers can realistically pursue.

• Stay Within Scope:
  Don’t stray too far from your topic—suggest future research that logically follows from your current study.

• Show the Value of Further Work:
  Make a case for why continued research is important. What could it help solve, improve, or understand better?

• Example Sentence on Future Studies:“Future research should explore whether interventions like sleep education or shift restructuring can reduce fatigue-related errors among medical professionals.”

 

• Conclusion of a research paper

The Conclusion provides a brief, clear summary of the main contribution or take away from your study. It highlights the significance of your findings and what they add to the field, helping readers leave with a strong understanding of your work’s impact.

Tips for Writing a Strong Conclusion:

• Be Concise and Focused:
  Summarize the key message without repeating details already covered in the Discussion.
• Highlight the Study’s Contribution:
  Emphasize the importance of your findings and their potential implications for research, practice, or policy.
• Avoid Introducing New Information:
  The conclusion should wrap up your paper, not add new data or arguments.
• End on a Positive or Forward-Looking Note:
  You can briefly mention the potential for future research or practical applications, but keep it succinct.

Example Conclusion:

This study demonstrates that 24-hour sleep deprivation significantly impairs cognitive performance in medical interns. These findings contribute valuable evidence supporting changes in hospital scheduling policies to enhance both patient safety and physician health.

• Acknowledgments

The Acknowledgments section is where you recognize the help and support you received during your research that doesn’t qualify for authorship. This can include individuals or institutions who contributed in important but indirect ways.

Who to Acknowledge:

• Technical Support: People who assisted with equipment, software, or laboratory work.
• Mentorship or Advice: Colleagues or mentors who provided guidance or intellectual input but did not directly contribute to writing or data analysis.
• Editorial or Administrative Help: Those who helped with proofreading, formatting, or managing project logistics.
• Funding Sources: Grants, scholarships, or organizations that financially supported the research. (Sometimes this is a separate funding section, comes next.)

Tips for Writing Acknowledgments:

• Be Specific and Courteous:
  Mention individuals by name and briefly describe their contribution.
• Get Permission:
  It’s good practice to ask people if they are comfortable being acknowledged publicly.
• Keep It Professional and Concise:
  Focus on relevant contributions and avoid overly personal remarks.

Example Acknowledgment:

The authors thank Dr. Jane Smith for her valuable advice on study design, and the XYZ Laboratory staff for technical support with data collection. We also appreciate the editorial assistance provided by John Doe. This research was funded by the ABC Research Foundation (Grant #12345).

 

 

• Funding Statement

The Funding Statement discloses the sources of financial support that made the research possible. This transparency helps readers understand potential influences and acknowledges the organizations or agencies that contributed resources.

Tips for Writing a Funding Statement:

• Clearly Name All Funders:
  Include the full names of funding bodies, institutions, or agencies that supported your research.
• Include Grant Numbers:
  When applicable, provide specific grant or award numbers associated with the funding.
• Be Transparent:
  If there was no external funding, state this explicitly (e.g., “This research received no specific grant from any funding agency”).

Example Funding Statement:

This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) under Grant R01-AB123456 and the ABC Foundation Grant #78910.

 

• Author Contributions

The Author Contributions section clearly outlines each author’s specific roles and responsibilities in the research and writing process. Using standardized frameworks like CRediT (Contributor Roles Taxonomy) helps ensure transparency and credit fairness.

Common Contribution Roles (CRediT Examples):

• Conceptualization:
  Who developed the main idea and research goals?
• Methodology:
  Who designed the methods and experiments?
• Data Collection / Investigation:
  Who performed the experiments or gathered data?
• Formal Analysis:
  Who analyzed and interpreted the data?
  Writing – Original Draft:
  Who wrote the initial manuscript?
• Writing – Review & Editing:
  Who contributed to revising and editing the manuscript?
• Supervision:
  Who oversaw the project and guided the team?
• Funding Acquisition:
  Who secured financial support?

Tips for Writing Author Contributions:

• Be Specific and Honest:
  Clearly describe what each author did to avoid confusion and disputes.
• Agree Early:
  Discuss and agree on contributions and author order at the start of the project when possible.
• Use Standardized Terms:
  Many journals recommend using CRediT roles or similar taxonomies for consistency.

Example Author Contributions Statement:

Conceptualization: Jane Doe; Methodology: John Smith; Data Collection: Sarah Lee; Formal Analysis: John Smith; Writing – Original Draft: Sarah Lee; Writing – Review & Editing: Jane Doe and John Smith; Supervision: Jane Doe; Funding Acquisition: Jane Doe.

 

• Ethics Statements

The Ethics Statement confirms that the research involving human participants, animals, or sensitive data was conducted following ethical guidelines and received appropriate approvals. This reassures readers and journals that the study respects ethical standards.

What to Include in an Ethics Statement:

• Ethical Approval:
  Specify the name of the ethics review board or Institutional Review Board (IRB) that approved the study.
• Approval Numbers:
  Include the official approval or protocol number assigned by the ethics committee.
• Informed Consent:
  Confirm that informed consent was obtained from all human participants or their guardians.
• Compliance with Guidelines:
  State compliance with relevant ethical standards, such as the Declaration of Helsinki for human research or ARRIVE guidelines for animal studies.
• Animal Studies:
  Mention approval by an animal care and use committee, and confirm adherence to humane treatment protocols.

Tips for Writing an Ethics Statement:

• Be Clear and Specific:
  Clearly state which body approved the research and any identifiers for the approval.
• Avoid Ambiguity:
  Don’t leave ethical compliance implied; explicitly state it.

Example Ethics Statement for Human Research:

This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of XYZ University (Approval No. 2023-045). Written informed consent was obtained from all participants in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

Example Ethics Statement for Animal Research:

All animal procedures were approved by the XYZ University Animal Care and Use Committee (Protocol No. A2023-078) and conducted in accordance with national guidelines for the care and use of laboratory animals.

 

• Conflicts of Interests (COI)

The Conflicts of Interest section discloses any financial, personal, or professional relationships that could influence—or be perceived to influence—the research or its interpretation. This transparency helps maintain trust and integrity in scientific publishing.

What to Include in a COI Statement:

• Financial Interests:
  Any funding, stocks, patents, or paid consultancies related to the research.
• Personal Relationships:
  Close personal or professional relationships that might bias the work.
• Other Potential Conflicts:
  Any other interests that could affect objectivity or judgment.
• No Conflicts:
  If there are no conflicts, explicitly state this.

Tips for Writing a COI Statement:

• Be Honest and Transparent:
  Disclose all relevant information, even if you think it’s minor.
• Use Clear Language:
  Avoid vague terms; clearly state what the conflict is or confirm none exist.

Example COI Statements:

• With Conflicts:
  “Author A has received consulting fees from XYZ Pharma. Author B holds a patent related to the study. Other authors declare no conflicts of interest.”
• No Conflicts:
  “The authors declare no competing interests.”

 

 

• Data Availability

The Data Availability statement informs readers where and how they can access the data supporting the findings of your study. This promotes transparency, reproducibility, and trust in research.

Common Options for Data Availability:

• Public Repositories:
  If your data is openly accessible, provide the name of the repository (e.g., Dryad, Figshare, GenBank) and a direct link or accession number.
• Available Upon Request:
  Sometimes data can’t be fully open due to privacy or proprietary reasons but can be shared on reasonable request. Specify how interested researchers can contact you.
• Not Available:
  If data cannot be shared, explain why (e.g., patient confidentiality, proprietary restrictions).

Tips for Writing a Data Availability Statement:

• Be Specific:
  Clearly state where the data is stored and how it can be accessed.
• Respect Privacy and Ethics:
  Protect sensitive information and follow ethical guidelines when sharing data.

Example Data Availability Statements:

• Public Repository:
  “The datasets generated during this study are available in the XYZ repository, accession number ABC123, at [link].”
• Upon Request:
  “The data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.”
• Not Available:
  “Due to patient confidentiality agreements, the datasets generated during the current study are not publicly available.”

 

 

• Disclosure

The Disclosure section provides an opportunity to share any additional relevant information that may affect the perception or interpretation of your research. This can include patents, professional roles, affiliations, or other interests not covered in the Conflicts of Interest or Funding statements.

What to Include in a Disclosure:

• Patents:
  Any pending or granted patents related to the research.
• Professional Roles:
  Positions held by authors in organizations that might be relevant (e.g., editorial boards, advisory roles).
• Affiliations:
  Any affiliations that may influence or relate to the study but weren’t listed earlier.
• Other Relevant Information:
  Any other disclosures that help maintain transparency.

Tips for Writing a Disclosure Statement:

• Be Transparent:
  Even if unsure, it’s better to disclose to avoid potential conflicts later.
• Keep It Concise:
  Provide necessary details without unnecessary elaboration.
• Some journals combine disclosure with COI or funding.

Example Disclosure Statements:

• Separate Disclosure:
  “Author A holds a patent pending on the technology discussed in this paper. Author B serves on the editorial board of the Journal of XYZ.”
• Merged Disclosure:
  “The authors declare no competing interests. This work was funded by ABC Foundation (Grant #12345). Author C holds a related patent (Patent #98765).”

 

• References

The References section lists all the sources, studies, and literature you cited or mentioned throughout your research paper. Proper citation gives credit to original authors, supports your arguments, and allows readers to locate the sources for further reading.

Tips for Writing the References Section:

• Choose a Consistent Citation Style:
  Common styles include APA, Vancouver, MLA, Chicago, and others. Follow the style required by your target journal or institution. Consistency is key—don’t mix styles.
• Use Reference Management Tools:
  Software like EndNote, Zotero, Mendeley, or RefWorks can help you organize citations, format references correctly, and insert citations easily while writing.
• Include All Cited Works:
  Ensure every in-text citation has a corresponding entry in the References, and vice versa.
• When preparing your paper, start building your reference list early to avoid last-minute scrambles.

Example of Reference Entries (APA and Vancouver styles):

• APA style:
  Smith, J. A., & Lee, R. T. (2020). Effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance. Journal of Sleep Research, 29(3), e12945. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.12945
• Vancouver style:
  1. Smith JA, Lee RT. Effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance. J Sleep Res. 2020;29(3):e12945.

 

 

Back Matter

Back matter refers to the optional or supplementary sections of a research paper that appear after the main text.

• What is an appendix in a paper?

The Appendix contains detailed supplementary material that supports your research but is not essential to include in the main body of the paper. This can include full survey questionnaires, detailed protocols, extended data tables, computer code, or additional figures.

Why Use an Appendix?

• Keeps the Main Text Clear:
  Helps maintain the flow and readability of your paper by moving lengthy or technical details out of the main sections.
• Enhances Transparency and Reproducibility:
  Provides full information that allows other researchers to replicate your study or better understand your methods.
• Offers Supplemental Material for Interested Readers:
  Those who want more depth or specifics can consult the appendix without cluttering the primary narrative.

Tips for Preparing an Appendix:

• Label Clearly:
  Use titles like “Appendix A,” “Appendix B,” etc., and refer to them explicitly in the main text.
• Organize Logically:
  Group related materials together and maintain a consistent format.
• Include Only Relevant Material:
  Avoid adding unrelated or unnecessary content.

Examples of Materials to Include:

• Full survey or interview questionnaires
• Detailed step-by-step protocols
• Extended statistical analyses or raw data tables
• Computer code or algorithms used for analysis
• Supplementary figures or charts

Example Reference in Main Text:

Detailed survey questions can be found in Appendix A.

 

• Supplementary Materials / Online Supplementary Information

Supplementary materials provide extra content that supports your research but is not included in the main manuscript due to space, focus, or format constraints. These materials are usually hosted online by the journal or repository and can include additional datasets, figures, tables, videos, or detailed protocols.

Why Use Supplementary Materials?

• Offer More Depth:
  Share extensive data or analyses that interested readers or reviewers might want to explore.
• Keep the Main Paper Concise:
  Avoid overloading the paper with large datasets or lengthy details.
• Enhance Transparency:
  Provide raw data, code, or extended methods to promote reproducibility.

Tips for Supplementary Materials:

• Clearly Reference in the Main Text:
  Guide readers by citing supplementary content explicitly, e.g., “See Supplementary Figure S1” or “Additional methods are provided in Supplementary Material.”
• Label Clearly:
  Use clear numbering or lettering (e.g., Supplementary Table S1, Supplementary Video 1).
• File Formats:
  Use accessible and commonly supported formats (PDF, XLSX, CSV, MP4, etc.).
• Keep Supplementary Material Organized:
  Provide a brief description or legend for each supplementary item.

Examples of Supplementary Materials:

• Additional experimental results or extended data tables
• High-resolution images or complex figures
• Video demonstrations of techniques or behaviors
• Raw datasets or data spreadsheets
• Computer code or scripts used for analysis

Example Reference in Main Text:

Detailed methodology and additional results are available in the Supplementary Materials.

 

Submission Documents (Not Typically Published)

Statement of Authorship and Originality

The Statement of Authorship and Originality confirms that the research paper is the original work of the authors, has not been published before, and is not being considered for publication elsewhere. It also affirms that all listed authors meet the criteria for authorship and have approved the final manuscript.

Why This Statement Matters:

• Ensures Integrity:
  Prevents duplicate publication and plagiarism, maintaining the trustworthiness of scientific literature.
• Clarifies Author Roles:
  Confirms that all authors contributed meaningfully and agree with the content.
• Journal Requirement:
  Most journals require this declaration during submission to protect ethical publishing standards.

Tips for Preparing This Statement:

• Be Clear and Formal:
  Use straightforward language affirming originality and authorship.
• Include All Authors:
  Confirm that all co-authors have reviewed and approved the manuscript.
• Submit During Manuscript Submission:
  This statement is usually required as part of the submission process, not printed in the published article.

Example Statement:

“We confirm that this manuscript is our original work, has not been published elsewhere, and is not under consideration by any other journal. All authors have contributed significantly to the study and have approved the final version of the manuscript.”

 

 

Final Thoughts

Understanding the structure and function of each component in a research paper is vital for success in academic publishing. While this guide outlines the full range of possible sections, every journal may use different formats or exclude some sections. Always check the journal’s submission guidelines before you start writing.

 Save or bookmark this guide to reference throughout your writing process.

 

For more writing guides and research resources, visit ConductScience Resources.